Look up cgi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

CGI may refer to:

Technology[link]

• Computer-generated imagery, computer graphic effects in films, television programs, and other visual media
  • CGI animation
• Computer Graphics Interface, the low-level interface between the Graphical Kernel System (GKS) and the hardware.
• Common Gateway Interface, a standard for dynamic generation of web pages by a web server
  • CGI.pm, a Perl module for implementing Common Gateway Interface programs
• Compacted graphite iron, a type of cast iron
• Corrugated galvanised iron, a type of molded sheet-metal
• Cell Global Identity, unique identifier of a cell site in cellular networks

Organizations[link]

• California Graduate Institute, an independent graduate school specializing in psychology
• Catholic Guides of Ireland, a girl guide association
• CGI Aero or RusAir, a Russian airline
• CGI Group, an information technology and business process services company
• CGI Informatique, a former French information technology consulting company
• Clinton Global Initiative, a forum created by former US President Bill Clinton to discuss global problems
• Coast Guard Intelligence, the intelligence branch of the United States Coast Guard
• Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information, a Commission of the International Union of Geological Sciences to enable the global exchange of knowledge about geoscience information and systems
• Consultative Group on Indonesia, a former gathering of donors to the Indonesian government
• Cuerpo Guardia de Infantería, an Argentine police riot control service

Other[link]

• Clinical Global Impression, a scale to assess treatment response associated with mental disorders
• Cognitively Guided Instruction, an approach to mathematics teaching and learning that focuses on students' thinking and solution strategies
• CpG islands, in genetics, genomic regions that contain a high frequency of CG dinucleotides
• Cape Girardeau Regional Airport, an airport (IATA airport code: CGI) in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, United States

See also[link]

• All pages beginning with "CGI"
• All pages with titles containing "CGI"

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (May 2012)

Architect

An architect at work, 1893.
Occupation
Names	Architect
Activity sectors	Architecture real estate development urban planning construction interior design Civil Engineering
Description
Competencies	technical knowledge, building design, planning and management skills[citation needed]
Education required	see professional requirements

An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and oversight/supervision of the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to offer or render services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use.^[1] Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder), i.e. chief builder.^[2]

Professionally, an architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum (or internship) for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. The practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction (see below).

The terms architect and architecture are also used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture and often information technology (for example a software architect). In most of the world's jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms "architect" and "landscape architect" are legally protected.

Origins[link]

Throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between the architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles "architect" and "engineer" were primarily geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.^[3][4]

Architects in practice[link]

Architecture is a business in which technical knowledge, management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. An architect accepts a commission from a client. The commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building. Throughout the project (planning to occupancy), the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, who must ensure that the work is co-ordinated to construct the design.

Design role[link]

The architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client [extensively] to ascertain all the requirements and nuances of the planned project. This information, known as a program or brief, is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs and desires of the owner—it is a guide for the architect in creating the design concept.

Architects deal with local and federal jurisdictions about regulations and building codes. The architect might need to comply with local planning and zoning laws, such as required setbacks, height limitations, parking requirements, transparency requirements (windows), and land use. Some established jurisdictions require adherence to design and historic preservation guidelines.

Construction role[link]

Architects typically put projects to tender on behalf of their clients, advise on the award of the project to a general contractor, and review the progress of the work during construction. They typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals, prepare and issue site instructions, and provide construction contract administration and Certificates for Payment to the contractor (see also Design-bid-build). In many jurisdictions, mandatory certification or assurance of the work is required.

Depending on the client's needs and the jurisdiction's requirements, the spectrum of the architect's services may be extensive (detailed document preparation and construction review) or less inclusive (such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable design-build functions). With very large, complex projects, an independent construction manager is sometimes hired to assist in design and to manage construction. In the United Kingdom and other countries, a quantity surveyor is often part of the team to provide cost consulting.

Alternate practice and specializations[link]

Recent decades have seen the rise of specializations within the profession. Many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types (for example, health care, retail, public housing, event management), technological expertise or project delivery methods. Some architects specialize as building code, building envelope, sustainable design, technical writing, historic preservation(US) or conservation (UK), accessibility and other forms of specialist consultants.

Many architects elect to move into real estate (property) development, corporate facilities planning, project management, construction management, interior design or other related fields.

Professional requirements[link]

Although there are variations from place to place, most of the world's architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. To do so, architects are typically required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.

Educational requirements generally consist of a university degree in architecture. The experience requirement for degreed candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship (usually two to three years, depending on jurisdiction). Finally, a Registration Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.

Professionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern times, there was no distinction between architects, engineers and often artists, and the title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of master builder, or surveyor, after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory.

Professional title distinctions[link]

According to the American Institute of Architects,^[5] titles and job descriptions within American architectural offices might be as follows:

• Senior Principal / Partner: Typically an owner or majority shareholder of the firm; may be the founder; titles may include president, chief executive officer, or managing principal/partner.

• Mid-level Principal / Partner: Principal or partner; titles may include executive or senior vice president.

• Junior Principal / Partner: Recently made a partner or principal of the firm; title may include vice president.

• Department head / Senior Manager: Senior management architect or non-registered graduate; responsible for major department(s) or functions; reports to a principal or partner.

• Project Manager: Licensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has overall project management responsibility for a variety of projects or project teams, including client contact, scheduling, and budgeting.

• Senior Architect / Designer: Licensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has a design or technical focus and is responsible for significant project activities.

• Architect / Designer III: Licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 8–10 years of experience; responsible for significant aspects of projects.

• Architect / Designer II: Licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 6–8 years of experience, responsible for daily design or technical development of projects.

• Architect / Designer I: Recently licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 3–5 years of experience; responsible for particular parts of a project within parameters set by others.

• Intern Architect: Unlicensed architecture school graduate participating in defined internship program; develops design or technical solutions under supervision of an architect.

Architect's fees[link]

Architects' fee structures are typically based on a percentage of construction value, hourly rates or a fixed lump sum fee. Combinations of these structures are also common. Fixed fees are usually based on a project's allocated construction cost and can range between 4 and 12% of new construction cost, for commercial and institutional projects, depending on a project's size and complexity. Residential projects range from 12 to 20%. Renovation projects typically command higher percentages, as high as 15-20%.

Overall billings for architectural firms range widely, depending on location and economic climate. Billings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but, with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for larger international firms. Salaries also vary, depending on experience, position within the firm (staff architect, partner or shareholder, etc.) and the size and location of the firm.

Professional organizations[link]

Architect and buildings in 21st century (1910 card)

Refer to the international list of professional architecture organizations for groups created to promote career and business development in architecture. A wide variety of prizes are awarded to architects to acknowledge superior buildings, structures and professional careers.

Prizes, awards, and titles[link]

The most lucrative award an architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize, sometimes termed the "Nobel Prize for architecture." Other prestigious architectural awards are the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, the Richard H. Driehaus Prize for Classical Architecture, the Alvar Aalto Medal (Finland), the Carlsberg Architecture Prize (Denmark), and the Governor General's Awards (Canada). Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national professional associations such as the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), and the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC).

Architects in the UK who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, might until 1971 be elected Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and can write FRIBA after their name if they feel so inclined. Those elected to chartered membership of the RIBA after 1971 may use the initials RIBA but cannot use the old ARIBA and FRIBA. An Honorary Fellow may use the initials Hon. FRIBA. and an International Fellow may use the initials Int. FRIBA. Architects in the US who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, are elected Fellows of the American Institute of Architects and can write FAIA after their name. Architects in Canada who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contribution to research, scholarship, public service or professional standing to the good of architecture in Canada, or elsewhere, may be recognized as a Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada and can write FRAIC after their name.

See also[link]

Architecture portal

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Architects

• International Union of Architects

A software engineer is an engineer who applies the principles of software engineering to the design, development, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that make computers or anything containing software work.

Overview[link]

Prior to the mid-1960s, software practitioners called themselves computer programmers or software developers, regardless of their actual jobs. Many people prefer to call themselves software developer and programmer, because most widely agree what these terms mean, while software engineer is still being debated. A prominent computing scientist, E. W. Dijkstra, wrote in a paper that the coining of the term software engineer was not useful since it was an inappropriate analogy, "The existence of the mere term has been the base of a number of extremely shallow—and false—analogies, which just confuse the issue...Computers are such exceptional gadgets that there is good reason to assume that most analogies with other disciplines are too shallow to be of any positive value, are even so shallow that they are only confusing."^[1]

The term programmer has often been used as a pejorative term to refer to those without the tools, skills, education, or ethics to write good quality software. In response, many practitioners called themselves software engineers to escape the stigma attached to the word programmer. In many companies, the titles programmer and software developer were changed to software engineer, for many categories of programmers.

These terms cause confusion, because some denied any differences (arguing that everyone does essentially the same thing with software) while others use the terms to create a difference (because the terms mean completely different jobs).

A state of the art[link]

In 2004, Keith Chapple of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics counted 760,840 software engineers holding jobs in the U.S.; in the same period there were some 1.4 million practitioners employed in the U.S. in all other engineering disciplines combined.^[2] The label software engineer is used very liberally in the corporate world. Very few of the practicing software engineers actually hold Engineering degrees from accredited universities. In fact, according to the Association for Computing Machinery, "most people who now function in the U.S. as serious software engineers have degrees in computer science, not in software engineering". See also Controversies over the term Engineer.

Regulatory classification[link]

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies computer software engineers as a subcategory of "computer specialists", along with occupations such as computer scientist, programmer, and network administrator.^[3] The BLS classifies all other engineering disciplines, including computer hardware engineers, as "engineers".^[4]

The U.K. has seen the alignment of the Information Technology Professional and the Engineering Professionals.^[5]

Software engineering in Canada has seen some contests in the courts over the use of the title "Software Engineer".^[6] The Canadian Council of Professional Engineers (C.C.P.E. or "Engineers Canada") will not grant a "Professional Engineer" status/license to anyone who has not completed a recognized academic engineering program.^{[citation needed]} Engineers qualified outside Canada are similarly unable to obtain a "Professional Engineer" license.^[7] Since 2001, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board has accredited several university programs in software engineering,^[8] allowing graduates to apply for a professional engineering licence once the other prerequisites are obtained, although this does nothing to help IT professionals using the title with degrees in other fields (such as computer science).

Some of the states in the United States regulate the use of terms such as "computer engineer" and even "software engineer". These states include Texas^[9] and Florida.^[10]

Education[link]

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2010)

About half of all practitioners today have degrees in computer science, information systems, or information technology. A small, but growing, number of practitioners have software engineering degrees. In 1987, Imperial College London introduced the first three-year software engineering Bachelor's degree in the UK and the world; in the following year, the University of Sheffield established a similar programme.^[11] In 1996, the Rochester Institute of Technology established the first software engineering Bachelor's degree program in the United States, however, it did not obtain ABET accreditation until 2003, the same time as Rice University, Clarkson University, Milwaukee School of Engineering and Mississippi State University obtained theirs.^[12] In 1997, PSG College of Technology in Coimbatore, India was the first to start a five-year integrated Master of Science degree in Software Engineering.^{[citation needed]}

Since then, software engineering undergraduate degrees have been established at many universities. A standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was recently^[when?] defined by the CCSE. As of 2004^[update], in the U.S., about 50 universities offer software engineering degrees, which teach both computer science and engineering principles and practices. The first software engineering Master's degree was established at Seattle University in 1979. Since then graduate software engineering degrees have been made available from many more universities. Likewise in Canada, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) of the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers has recognized several software engineering programs.

In 1998, the US Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) established the first doctorate program in Software Engineering in the world.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, many online advanced degrees in Software Engineering have appeared such as the Master of Science in Software Engineering (MSE) degree offered through the Computer Science and Engineering Department at California State University, Fullerton. Steve McConnell opines that because most universities teach computer science rather than software engineering, there is a shortage of true software engineers.^[13] ETS University and UQAM were mandated by IEEE to develop the SoftWare Engineering BOdy of Knowledge SWEBOK, which has become an ISO standard describing the body of knowledge covered by a software engineer^{[citation needed]}.

Other degrees[link]

In business, some software engineering practitioners have MIS or computer information systems degrees. In embedded systems, some have electrical engineering, computer science with emphasis in "embedded systems" or computer engineering degrees, because embedded software often requires a detailed understanding of hardware. In medical software, practitioners may have medical informatics, general medical, or biology degrees.^{[citation needed]}

Some practitioners have mathematics, science, engineering, or technology degrees. Some have philosophy (logic in particular) or other non-technical degrees.^{[citation needed]}For instance, Barry Boehm earned degrees in mathematics. And, others have no degrees.^{[citation needed]}

Profession[link]

Employment[link]

Most software engineers work as employees or contractors. Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies (civilian or military), and non-profit organizations. Some software engineers work for themselves as freelancers. Some organizations have specialists to perform each of the tasks in the software development process. Other organizations required software engineers to do many or all of them. In large projects, people may specialize in only one role. In small projects, people may fill several or all roles at the same time. Specializations include: in industry (analysts, architects, developers, testers, technical support, managers) and in academia (educators, researchers).

There is considerable debate over the future employment prospects for Software Engineers and other IT Professionals. For example, an online futures market called the Future of IT Jobs in America attempts to answer whether there will be more IT jobs, including software engineers, in 2012 than there were in 2002.

Certification[link]

Professional certification of software engineers is a contentious issue.^{[citation needed]} Some see it as a tool to improve professional practice.^{[citation needed]}

Most successful certification programs in the software industry are oriented toward specific technologies, and are managed by the vendors of these technologies.^{[citation needed]} These certification programs are tailored to the institutions that would employ people who use these technologies.

The ACM had a professional certification program in the early 1980s, which was discontinued due to lack of interest.^[14] As of 2006^[update], the IEEE had certified over 575 software professionals.^[15] In Canada the Canadian Information Processing Society has developed a legally recognized professional certification called Information Systems Professional (ISP).^[16]

Impact of globalization[link]

Many students in the developed world have avoided degrees related to software engineering because of the fear of offshore outsourcing (importing software products or services from other countries) and of being displaced by foreign visa workers.^[17] Although government statistics do not currently show a threat to software engineering itself; a related career, computer programming does appear to have been affected.^[18][19] Often one is expected to start out as a computer programmer before being promoted to software engineer. Thus, the career path to software engineering may be rough, especially during recessions.

Some career counselors suggest a student also focus on "people skills" and business skills rather than purely technical skills because such "soft skills" are allegedly more difficult to offshore.^[20] It is the quasi-management aspects of software engineering that appear to be what has kept it from being impacted by globalization.^[21]

Prizes[link]

There are several prizes in the field of software engineering:^[22]

• The CODiE awards is a yearly award issued by the Software and Information Industry Association for excellence in software development within the software industry.
• Jolt Awards are awards in the software industry.
• Stevens Award is a software engineering award given in memory of Wayne Stevens.

Use of the title "Engineer"[link]

Suitability of the term[link]

Typical formal definitions of software engineering are:

• "the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software".^[23]
• "an engineering discipline that is concerned with all aspects of software production"^[24]
• "the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to economically obtain software that is reliable and works efficiently on real machines"^[25]

The term has been used less formally:

• as the informal contemporary term for the broad range of activities that were formerly called programming and systems analysis;^[26]
• as the broad term for all aspects of the practice of computer programming, as opposed to the theory of computer programming, which is called computer science;^[27]
• as the term embodying the advocacy of a specific approach to computer programming, one that urges that it be treated as an engineering discipline rather than an art or a craft, and advocates the codification of recommended practices.^[28]

Many people believe that software engineering implies a certain level of academic training, professional discipline, adherence to formal processes, and especially legal liability that often are not applied in cases of software development. A common analogy is that working in construction does not make one a civil engineer, and so writing code does not make one a software engineer. It is disputed by some — in particular by the Canadian Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO) body, that the field is not mature enough to warrant the title "engineering". The PEO disputed that "software engineering" was not an appropriate name for the field since those who practiced in the field and called themselves "software engineers" were not properly licensed professional engineers, and that they should therefore not be allowed to use the name.^[29]

In each of the last few decades, at least one radical new approach has entered the mainstream of software development (e.g. Structured Programming, Object Orientation), implying that the field is still changing too rapidly to be considered an engineering discipline. Proponents argue that the supposedly radical new approaches are evolutionary rather than revolutionary.^{[citation needed]}

Individual commentators have disagreed sharply on how to define software engineering or its legitimacy as an engineering discipline. David Parnas has said that software engineering is, in fact, a form of engineering.^[30][31] Steve McConnell has said that it is not, but that it should be.^[32] Donald Knuth has said that programming is an art and a science.^[33] Edsger W. Dijkstra claimed that the terms software engineering and software engineer have been misused, particularly in the United States.^[34]

Regulatory classification[link]

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies computer software engineers as a subcategory of "computer specialists", along with occupations such as computer scientist, programmer, and network administrator.^[3] The BLS classifies all other engineering disciplines, including computer hardware engineers, as "engineers".^[4]

The U.K. has seen the alignment of the Information Technology Professional and the Engineering Professionals.^[5]

In New Zealand, IPENZ, the professional engineering organization entrusted by the New Zealand government with legal power to license and regulate chartered engineers (CPEng), recognizes software engineering as a legitimate branch of professional engineering and accepts application of software engineers to obtain chartered status provided he or she has a tertiary degree of approved subjects. Software Engineering is included but Computer Science is normally not.^[35]

In Canada, the use of the job title "Engineer" is controlled in each province by self-regulating professional engineering organizations, often aligned with geologists and geophysicists, and tasked with enforcement of the governing legislation. The intent is that any individual holding themselves out as an engineer (or geologist or geophysicist) has been verified to have been educated to a certain accredited level, and their professional practice is subject to a code of ethics and peer scrutiny. This system was originally designed for the practise of engineering where public safety is a concern, but extends to other branches of engineering as well, including electronics and software^{[citation needed]}. Software engineering in Canada has seen some contests in the courts over the use of the title "Software Engineer"^[6] The Canadian Council of Professional Engineers (C.C.P.E. or "Engineers Canada") will not grant a "Professional Engineer" status/license to anyone who has not completed a recognized academic engineering program.^{[citation needed]} Engineers qualified outside Canada are similarly unable to obtain a "Professional Engineer" license.^[7] Since 2001, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board has accredited several university programs in software engineering,^[8] allowing graduates to apply for a professional engineering licence once the other prerequisites are obtained, although this does nothing to help IT professionals using the title with degrees in other fields (such as computer science).

Some of the United States of America regulate the use of terms such as "computer engineer" and even "software engineer". These states include at least Texas^[36] and Florida.^[10] Texas even goes so far as to ban anyone from writing any real-time code without an engineering license.

See also[link]

Computer science portal

• Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
• Bachelor of Software Engineering
• Consulting software engineer
• Software engineering demographics
• Software Engineering Institute
• Software engineering professionalism

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Software engineers